1 Introduction to Electric and Hybrid Vehicles The transition to electric road transport technologies has gained significant momentum over the past decade aided by both the technological advancements over the years and the growing interest among consumers. Electric vehicles (EVs) are now being offered with improved performances and capabilities such as increased acceleration, extended range and fast charging options. The global sale of EVs that include both battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) exceeded the 5 million mark in 2019 with the ratio between BEVs and PHEVs titling more towards the former.
Whereas it took 5 years for the first million EVs to be sold, it took only 6 months for the next million and the rate of adoption has been ever increasing. The compelling impetus to develop clean, efficient and sustainable vehicles for urban transportation stems from both environmental and economic considerations. Passenger vehicles constitute an integral part of our everyday life, yet the exhaust emissions of the conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) are to blame for the major source of urban pollution that causes the greenhouse effect leading to global warming [1].
The dependence on oil as the sole source of energy for passenger vehicles has eco- nomical and political implications, and the crisis will inevitably become acute as the oil reserve of the world diminishes. The number of automobiles in our planet exceeds 1.4 billion according to some estimates, and the increasing number of automobiles being introduced on the road every year is only adding to the pollution problem. There is also an economic factor that is inherent in the poor energy conversion efficiency of the internal combustion (IC) engines.
When efficiency is evalu- ated on the basis of conversion from crude oil to traction effort at the wheels, the number for the alternative EVs is not significantly higher; however, it does make a difference. The emission due to power generation at localized plants is much easier to regulate than those emanating from ICEVs that are individually maintained and scattered all over the places. The people dwelling in cities are not exposed to power plant-related emissions, since these are mostly located outside urban areas. Furthermore, electric power can be generated using renewable sources such as hydro, wind and solar, which would provide the most environmentally friendly approach.
The EVs enabled by high- efficiency electric motors and controllers, and powered from alternative energy sources provide the means for a clean, efficient and environmentally friendly urban transportation system. EVs are the only zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) possible which provide the opportunity to curb the pollution problem in an efficient way. EVs made their way into public use as early as in the middle of the 19th century, even before the introduction of gasoline-powered vehicles [2]. In 1900, 4,200 automobiles were sold, of which 40% were steam powered, 38% were electric powered and 22% were gasoline powered.
However, the invention of the starter motor, improvements in mass production technology of gas-powered vehicles and inconvenience in battery charging led to the disappearance of EVs in the early 1900s. However, the environmental issues and the unpleasant dependence on oil led to the resurgence of interest in EVs in the 1960s. The growth in the enabling technologies over the next several decades and environmental and economic concerns renewed the interest in research and development for EVs. The interest and research in EVs soared in the 1990s with the major automobile manufactur- ers embarking on plans for introducing their own EVs or hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs).
General Motors introduced the first EV Saturn EV1 for public usage in 1995, although to a limited market in California and Arizona. The vehicle has since been discontinued, but the event is undoubtedly a milestone in modern vehicle history. The consumer market is more interested in vehicles that can 1