viii Contents 5.5.1.1 Basic Battery Model .........................................................130 5.5.1.2 Run-Time Battery Model .................................................. 132 5.5.1.3 Impedance-Based Model .................................................. 133 5.5.1.4 First Principle Model ........................................................ 133 5.5.2 Empirical Models .............................................................................134 5.5.2.1 Range Prediction with Constant Current Discharge ........136 5.5.2.2 Range Prediction with Power Density Approach .............
139 5.6 Traction Batteries .......................................................................................... 141 5.6.1 Lead Acid Battery ............................................................................ 141 5.6.2 Nickel-Cadmium Battery ................................................................. 142 5.6.3 Nickel-Metal-Hydride (NiMH) Battery ........................................... 143 5.6.4 Li-Ion Battery ...................................................................................144 5.6.5 Li-Polymer Battery ...........................................................................
145 5.6.6 Zinc-Air Battery ............................................................................... 146 5.6.7 Sodium-Sulfur Battery ..................................................................... 146 5.6.8 Sodium-Metal-Chloride Battery ...................................................... 146 5.6.9 Research and Development for Advanced Batteries ........................ 147 5.7 Battery Pack Management ............................................................................. 149 5.7.1 Battery Management System............................................................150 5.7.2 SoC Measurement ............................................................................
151 5.7.3 Battery Cell Balancing ..................................................................... 152 5.7.4 Battery Charging .............................................................................. 153 Problems ...................................................................................................................154 References ................................................................................................................156 Chapter 6 Alternative Energy Storage ......................................................................................
159 6.1 Fuel Cells ....................................................................................................... 159 6.1.1 Fuel Cell Characteristics .................................................................. 161 6.1.2 Fuel Cell Types ................................................................................. 162 6.1.2.1 Alkaline Fuel Cell ............................................................ 162 6.1.2.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell ............................. 162 6.1.2.3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell ................................................ 162 6.1.2.4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell ................................................
162 6.1.2.5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell .............................................. 162 6.1.2.6 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell ....................................................... 162 6.1.3 Fuel Cell Model ................................................................................164 6.1.4 Hydrogen Storage Systems ...............................................................164 6.1.5 Reformers ......................................................................................... 165 6.1.6 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle ................................................................. 166 6.1.6.1 Case Study: Toyota Mirai FCEV ......................................
167 6.2 Ultracapacitors ............................................................................................... 169 6.2.1 Symmetrical Ultracapacitors ............................................................ 169 6.2.2 Asymmetrical Ultracapacitors ......................................................... 171 6.2.3 Ultracapacitor Modeling .................................................................. 172 6.3 Compressed Air Storage ................................................................................ 173 6.4 Flywheels .......................................................................................................
174 Problems ................................................................................................................... 176 References ................................................................................................................ 177