2 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles travel long distances on one full charge of the battery-pack. Another feature that the society desires is the reduction of the battery-pack charging time to a level comparable to that of filling up a gas tank. The limited range of the battery-powered EVs led researchers and auto industries to search for alternatives in the 1990s. The aggressive efforts by the industry led to the rapid development of HEVs. Toyota led the way among the industries introducing the first production hybrid vehicle Toyota Prius in the late 1990s.
Many other industries have since introduced hybrids for the consum- ers addressing the concerns about environmental pollution and excessive dependence on fossil fuels. The HEVs or simply hybrid vehicles use both electric machines and an IC engine for delivering the propulsion power; these vehicles have lower emissions compared to a similarly sized conventional ICEV resulting in less environmental pollution. The IC engine used in a hybrid vehicle is, of course, downsized compared to an equivalent ICEV. The IC engine in combination with the electric motor and an energy storage unit provides the extended range and curve down the pollution.
The hybrid vehicle serves as a compromise for the environmental pollution problem and the limited range capabiltiy of a BEV. The hybrids are looked upon by many as a shorter-term solution until the range limitation and infrastucture problems of zero-emission EVs are solved. After about a decade of reign of HEVs in the passenger road vehicle electrification sector, EVs started reappearing with battery-powered vehicles from pioneering companies like Tesla and Nissan. Although Tesla has started offering BEVs since 2008, those vehicles were targeted for a niche market in the domain of luxury vehicles.
In 2011, Nissan offered the more affordable Nissan Leaf, which was soon followed by Ford with Ford Focus Electric. With rapid expansion of the global sales together with innovations in the electric powertrain, EVs are well on their way to sustainable mass-production market. Currently, traditional vehicle manufacturers and new generation EV man- ufacturers are all offering various types of EVs. In addition, charging stations are being installed in various urban and highway locations with many providing fast charging options. Several companies are offering wireless power chargers.
As the number of EVs plugging in into the power grid for charging the vehicle batteries is ris- ing, the burden on the utility to deliver the electricity is also increasing. Along with the supply of electricity come the infrastructure needs where extensive charging outlets and stations are required to meet the needs of the growing EV market. As the number of EVs increase, a large number of vehicles will be connected to the power grid simultaneously, which may cause a significant threat to the quality and stability of the overall grid. Even connecting and charging a large number of EVs at the household level will significantly increase the power system’s electricity demand.
With increas- ing introduction of fast charging stations and superchargers, the electricity supply issue will need to be addressed by either the charging station owner or the utility since these EV charging requires a burst of power over a short period of time. The utility industry views the growth in EV as a business opportunity but is also cautious about asset expansion planning and reconfiguration planning of the power distribution infrastructure. The limited range problem of BEVs can be overcome by adding a fuel cell engine that will gener- ate electricity for the electric motors as long as fuel is available.
The fuel cell is an electrochemical energy converter but has much higher efficiencies compared to a heat engine such as the IC engine. The fuel for these engines is hydrogen or gases from which hydrogen can be extracted. This concept has led to the development of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and to the discussions on hydrogen economy. The fuel cells are currently available in very limited quantities as fuel cell vehicles failed to gain momentum despite attempts by Honda and few other OEMs to establish the commercial value of FCEVs. Another factor for the decline in FCEV production is the technological improve- ments and cost reduction of Li-ion batteries used in BEVs.
The vast improvement in vehicle electrification in recent years has coincided with a radical trans- formation of society’s understanding of transportation where autonomous driving and ride-sharing services have opened the door to freedom of movement. While autonomous driving systems can be deployed either in conventional ICEVs or in EVs, there is a power demand from the powertrain