vii Contents 4.2.1 Sensors ...............................................................................................90 4.2.2 External Communications .................................................................. 91 4.3 Software Stack:
Perception, Localization, Path Planning and Control ...........92 4.3.1 Perception ...........................................................................................92 4.3.2 Localization ........................................................................................94 4.3.3 Path Planning .....................................................................................95 4.3.3.1 Mission Planning ................................................................95 4.3.3.2 Behavioral Planning ...........................................................95 4.3.3.3 Local Planning ....................................................................96 4.3.4 Motion Controls .................................................................................98 4.4 Autopilot and Actuators...................................................................................99 4.4.1 Throttle-by-Wire ................................................................................99 4.4.2 Steer-by-Wire ......................................................................................99 4.4.3 Brake-by-Wire ..................................................................................100 4.5 Safety Enhancements with Level 1 Autonomous Driving ............................
101 4.5.1 Cruise Control .................................................................................. 101 4.5.2 Lane Control .....................................................................................102 4.5.3 Traction Control ...............................................................................102 4.5.4 Automatic Braking ...........................................................................102 References ................................................................................................................ 103 Chapter 5 Battery Energy Storage ............................................................................................
105 5.1 Batteries in Electric and Hybrid Vehicles .....................................................106 5.2 Battery Basics ................................................................................................108 5.2.1 Battery Cell Structure ......................................................................108 5.2.2 Chemical Reactions ..........................................................................109 5.3 Battery Parameters ........................................................................................ 112 5.3.1 Battery Capacity ...............................................................................
112 5.3.2 Open-Circuit Voltage ....................................................................... 113 5.3.3 Terminal Voltage .............................................................................. 114 5.3.4 Practical Capacity ............................................................................ 114 5.3.5 Discharge Rate ................................................................................. 115 5.3.6 State of Charge ................................................................................. 116 5.3.7 State of Discharge ............................................................................
117 5.3.8 Depth of Discharge........................................................................... 117 5.3.9 Battery Energy ................................................................................. 117 5.3.10 Specific Energy ................................................................................ 118 5.3.11 Battery Power ................................................................................... 118 5.3.12 Specific Power .................................................................................. 119 5.3.13 Ragone Plots .....................................................................................
119 5.4 Electrochemical Cell Fundamentals..............................................................
119 5.4.1 Thermodynamic Voltage ..................................................................120 5.4.2 Electrolysis and Faradaic Current ....................................................123 5.4.3 Electrode Kinetics ............................................................................124 5.4.4 Mass Transport .................................................................................126 5.4.5 Electrical Double Layer ....................................................................127 5.4.6 Ohmic Resistance .............................................................................128 5.4.7 Concentration Polarization ...............................................................128 5.5 Battery Modeling ...........................................................................................128 5.5.1 Electric Circuit Models ....................................................................129