Facts Manual

Preface In 1968, Danfoss was the fi rst company in the world to commence mass production of Frequency Converters, for variable speed control of three-phase induction motors. Today FC’s are an increasingly important component for optimising motor operation, and the system attached to the motor. FC’s are now used in an expanding range of applications, with the following main objectives in mind: • Energy effi ciency optimisation: Converting from fi xed to variable speed in applications with varying load, delivers a step change in energy savings. In fact these days, modern motor technology always requires advanced control in order to run optimally at all speeds. • Factory automation:

Continuously escalating demand for factory throughput leading to a higher degree of automation implies a growing need for variable speed solutions. • Process control and optimisation: Improved process control often requires variable speed motor control and leads to more precise control, higher throughput, or comfort, depending on the application. The fundamentals of FC technology persist, but many elements are also rapidly changing. Increasingly, software is embedded in today’s products, off ering new functionalities and enabling the FC to play a larger role in the system. New motor types are appearing, placing additional demands on motor control.

This in turn means the FC must be able to control an expanding variety of motor types, without burdening the end user with more complexity. In addition, new energy effi ciency requirements lead to more variable speed applications, eventually making all motors variable speed and controlled by a FC. With this latest update of “Facts worth knowing about frequency converters”, we at Danfoss would like to continue the heritage from previous versions of this book. We are proud of what we do and are enthusiastic about FC’s. With this book we hope to convey some of this enthusiasm to you! If you would like to learn more, please feel free to contact Danfoss.

Jakob Fredsted Vice President, Research & Development Danfoss Power Electronics A/S © Copyright Danfoss

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Content 3 Content Page 0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 7 0.1 Speed Control of Electrical Motors ....................................................................................... 7 0.2 Why use Speed Control? .......................................................................................................... 8 0.3 How to Adjust the Motor Speed ............................................................................................

8 0.4 Frequency Convereters .............................................................................................................

9 1 Electric Motors ...................................................................................................................................10 1.1 Overview ......................................................................................................................................10 1.2 Fundamentals ............................................................................................................................11 1.2.1 Stator and Rotor .............................................................................................................11 1.2.2 Power and Torque ..........................................................................................................12 1.2.3 AC and DC Motors .........................................................................................................13 1.2.4 Electromagnetic Induction .........................................................................................13 1.2.5 Poles, Synchronous Speed and Asynchronous Speed .....................................14 1.2.6 Effi ciency and losses .....................................................................................................15 1.3 Asynchronous Motors .............................................................................................................17 1.3.1 Rotating Field ..................................................................................................................17 1.3.2 Squirrel Cage Motor ......................................................................................................19 1.3.3 Slip, Torque and Speed.................................................................................................21 1.3.4 Typical Operating Conditions ....................................................................................23 1.3.5 Changing Speed .............................................................................................................24 1.3.6 Motor Nameplate and Star or Delta Confi guration ...........................................27 1.4 Synchronous Motors ................................................................................................................29 1.4.1 Permanent Magnet (PM) Motors ..............................................................................29 1.4.1.1 Back EMF ...........................................................................................................31 1.4.1.2 Torque and Speed Range ...........................................................................32 1.4.2 Brushless DC (BLDC) or Electronically Commutated (EC) Motors ................33 1.4.3 Line Start PM Motor (LSPM Motor) ..........................................................................34 1.4.4 Reluctance Motors .........................................................................................................35 1.4.5 Synchronous Reluctance Motor with Squirrel Cage .........................................36 1.4.6 Synchronous Reluctance Motor (SynRM) ..............................................................37 1.4.7 Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) ..........................................................................39 2 Frequency Converters ....................................................................................................................41 2.1 Direct Converters ......................................................................................................................41 2.2 Converters with Intermediate Circuit ................................................................................42 2.3 Rectifi er .........................................................................................................................................44 2.3.1 Uncontrolled Rectifi ers ................................................................................................45

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Content 4 Page 2.3.2 Semi-controlled Rectifi ers ..........................................................................................46 2.3.3 Fully-controlled Rectifi ers ...........................................................................................47 2.3.4 Active Front-End/Active Infeed .................................................................................48 2.4 Intermediate Circuit .................................................................................................................48 2.4.1 Variable Intermediate Circuit .....................................................................................49 2.4.2 Constant Intermediate Circuit ...................................................................................51 2.5 Inverter .........................................................................................................................................52 2.6 Modulation Principles .............................................................................................................55 2.6.1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) ........................................................................55 2.6.2 Pulse with Modulation (PWM) ...................................................................................56 2.6.3 Asynchronous PMV .......................................................................................................59 2.6.3.1 SFAVM ................................................................................................................59 2.6.3.2 60° AVM .............................................................................................................62 2.7 Control Circuit and Methods ................................................................................................63 2.7.1 Simple Control Method ...............................................................................................65 2.7.2 Scalar Control with Compensation ..........................................................................66 2.7.3 Space Vector with and without Feedback ............................................................67 2.7.3.1 Space Vector (Open Loop) ..........................................................................67 2.7.3.2 Space Vector (Closed Loop) .......................................................................68 2.7.4 Open Loop and Closed Flux Vector Control .........................................................69 2.7.4.1 Flux Vector (Open Loop) .............................................................................69 2.7.4.2 Flux Vector (Closed Loop) ...........................................................................70 2.7.5 Servo Drive Control .......................................................................................................70 2.7.6 Control Conclusions ......................................................................................................71 2.8 Danfoss Control Principles .....................................................................................................71 2.8.1 Danfoss VVCplus Control Principle ..........................................................................72 2.8.2 Danfoss Flux Vector Control Principle ....................................................................76 2.9 Standards and Legislations ...................................................................................................77 3 Frequency Converters and Motors ..........................................................................................78 3.1 Basic Principles...........................................................................................................................78 3.1.1 U/f Operation and Field Weakening ........................................................................78 3.1.2 87 Hz Characteristics.....................................................................................................80 3.1.3 Running in Current Limit .............................................................................................82 3.2 Compensations ..........................................................................................................................82 3.2.1 Load-independent Start Compensations .............................................................83 3.2.2 Load-dependent Start Compensations .................................................................83 3.2.3 Load Compensations ....................................................................................................84 3.2.4 Slip Compensations ......................................................................................................84 3.2.5 PM Motor and SynRM compensations ...................................................................85

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Content 5 Page 3.3 Automatic Motor Adaption (AMA)......................................................................................86 3.4 Operation .....................................................................................................................................87 3.4.1 Motor Speed Control ....................................................................................................87 3.4.2 Reversing ..........................................................................................................................88 3.4.3 Acceleration and Deceleration Ramps (Ramp Up and Down) .......................89 3.4.4 Motor Torque Control ...................................................................................................91 3.4.5 Watchdog .........................................................................................................................92 3.5 Dynamic Brake Operation ......................................................................................................93 3.5.1 Extending Deceleration Ramp ..................................................................................94 3.5.2 Motor as a Breaking Resistor ......................................................................................94 3.5.3 Brake Chopper Circuit (Brake Module) and Resistor .........................................95 3.5.4 Use of a Regenerative Braking Unit .........................................................................95 3.6 Static Brake Operation ............................................................................................................96 3.6.1 Coasting to Stop .............................................................................................................97 3.6.2 DC Braking ........................................................................................................................97 3.6.3 DC Hold .............................................................................................................................97 3.6.4 Electromechanical Brake .............................................................................................97 3.7 Motor Heating and Thermal Monitoring ..........................................................................98 3.8 Functional Safety ...................................................................................................................

100 4 Saving Energy with Frequency Converters ...................................................................... 104 4.1 Potential .................................................................................................................................... 104 4.2 Motor + Frequency Converter Effi ciency ...................................................................... 105 4.3 Classifi cation of Energy Effi ciency ................................................................................... 106 4.4 Energy Effi cient Motor Start ...............................................................................................

109 4.5 Energy Effi cient Motor Control ......................................................................................... 111 4.6 Load over Time........................................................................................................................ 113 4.6.1 Applications with Variable Torque ........................................................................ 113 4.6.2 Applications with Constant Torque ...................................................................... 115 4.7 Life Cycle Costs .......................................................................................................................

116 4.8 System Savings ....................................................................................................................... 117 4.9 Using Renegerated Power .................................................................................................. 119 5 Electromagnetic Compatibility .............................................................................................. 122 5.1 EMI and EMC ............................................................................................................................ 122 5.2 EMC and Frequency Converters .......................................................................................

123 5.3 Grounding and Shielding ................................................................................................... 125 5.4 Installations with Frequency Converters ....................................................................... 130 5.5 Legislation and Standards .................................................................................................. 131

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