Lithium-Ion and Other Cell Chemistries 75 Table 4: Sodium-based chemistries solidify and heating it back up is a time-consuming process that can take 12 hours or more. Another challenge is that this battery cell generally requires significant protection due to the high operating temperatures, often requiring a well-insulated module and pack to protect operators and users from the high temperatures. One of the biggest benefits of sodium chemistries is cost, as the cathode is based on sodium, aluminum, nickel, and sulfur, all very common materials, it tends to be a very cost-effective solution.
Another benefit of the sodium chemistry is that, compared to lead acid, it offers both higher energy density and higher power density. With energy and power density levels approaching that of both NiMh and lithium-ion phosphate chemistries, sodium begins to become a competitive solution. Development work continues on these chemistries but so far applications have been limited to several automotive demonstrations and some stationary energy storage applications. In the stationary energy storage field, the sodium-based thermal batteries are making some very good in-roads due to the low cost and the relative isolation of the ESS from the workers.
Lithium-Ion Cells The first commercial lithium-ion chemistry was introduced to the market in 1990 based largely on the work of Dr John Goodenough of the University of Texas. From its introduction in 1991 to the early 2000s, sales of lithium-ion grew in demand to become the highest volume cell manufactured in the world with about 660 million small cylindrical cells and another 700 million small polymer (pouch)-type cells manufactured annually in 2013 (TrendForce, 2013). Lithium-ion quickly became the battery of choice for most small electronics because it contained much higher energy density than comparable cells on the market.
This meant that Sodium Metal Halide Sodium Sulfur Chemistry descriptor Sodium aluminum chloride (Na–AlCl ) NaS 4 Sodium nickel chloride (Na–NiCl ) 2 Specific energy (Wh/kg) 90–120 110 Energy density (Wh/L) 160 – Specific power (W/kg) 150–180 150 Power density (W/L) – – Nominal voltage (per cell) (V) 2.6 2.1 Cycle life 1000–1500 1000 Activation temperature range (°C) 270–350 350–700 Companies ZEBRA, Eagle–Picher, GE, SONICK-FIAMM Applications Automotive electric vehicle, military, space, Space and satellite telecommunications, train and rail, and applications stationary energy storage